Alternative Fuel Vehicle
ALTERNTIVE
FUEL VEHICLE
An alternative
fuel vehicle is a vehicle that runs on a fuel other than
"traditional" petroleum fuels (petrol or diesel); and also refers to
any technology of powering an engine that does not involve solely petroleum
(e.g. electric car, hybrid electric vehicles, solar powered). Because of a
combination of factors, such as environmental concerns, high oil prices and the
potential for peak oil, development of cleaner alternative fuels and advanced
power systems for vehicles has become a high priority for many governments and
vehicle manufacturers around the world.
Hybrid
electric vehicles such as the Toyota Prius are not actually alternative fuel
vehicles, but through advanced technologies in the electric battery and
motor/generator, they make a more efficient use of petroleum fuel. Other
research and development efforts in alternative forms of power focus on
developing all-electric and fuel cell vehicles, and even the stored energy of
compressed air.
As of
2011 there were more than one billion vehicles in use in the world, compared with over 85
million alternative fuel and advanced technology vehicles that had been sold or
converted worldwide as of August 2014, and made up mainly of:
· About 34 million flexible-fuel
vehicles as of October 2013, led by Brazil with over 23 million units (made of
20 million cars and light duty vehicles, and 3 million flex fuel motorcycles),
followed by the United States with almost 10 million flex-fuel cars and light
duty trucks, Canada
(600,000), and Europe, led by Sweden
(229,400).
· 17.8 million natural gas vehicles as
of December 2012, led by Iran with 3.30 million, followed by Pakistan (2.79
million), Argentina (2.29 million), Brazil (1.75 million), China (1.58 million)
and India (1.5 million).
· 17.5 million LPG powered vehicles by
December 2010, led by Turkey with 2.39 million, Poland (2.32 million), and
South Korea (2.3 million).
· Over 9 million hybrid electric
vehicles have been sold worldwide as of September 2014, led by Toyota Motor
Company (TMC) with more than 7 million Lexus and Toyota hybrids, followed by Honda Motor Co., Ltd. with
cumulative global sales of more than 1.35 million hybrids as of June 2014,
Ford Motor
Corporation with more than 375 thousand hybrids sold in the United States
through September 2014, and the Hyundai Group with cumulative global sales of
200 thousand hybrids as of March 2014, including both Hyundai Motors and
Kia Motors hybrid models. The world's bestselling hybrid is the Toyota Prius,
with 3 million units sold by June 2013. Global sales are led by the United
States with over 3 million units sold by October 2013, followed by Japan
with over 2.6 million hybrids by September 2013, and Europe with more than
650,000 units by August 2013.
· 5.7 million neat-ethanol only
light-vehicles built in Brazil since 1979, with 2.4 to 3.0 million vehicles
still in use by 2003 and 1.22 million units as of December 2011.
· Over 600,000 highway-capable plug-in
electric passenger cars and light utility vehicles have been sold worldwide as
of September 2014. The United States is the largest market with about 260,000
units delivered since 2008. Japan ranks second with over 95,000 highway-capable
plug-in electric cars sold since 2009, followed by China with more than 77,000
units sold since 2010, the Netherlands with 40,954 units registered, France
with 38,605 all-electric cars and light utility vans sold, Norway with 37,824
plug-in electric vehicles registered, Germany with 21,256 units, the UK with
17,456 units, Canada with 9,200 units, and Sweden with 6,771. As of September
2014, the Nissan Leaf all-electric car is the world's top selling
highway-capable all-electric car, with global sales of about 140,000 units,
followed by the Chevrolet Volt plug-in hybrid, which together with its sibling
the Opel/Vauxhall Ampera has combined sales of over 83,500 units.
An environmental analysis extends
beyond just the operating efficiency and emissions. A life-cycle assessment of
a vehicle involves production and post-use considerations. A cradle-to-cradle
design is more important than a focus on a single factor such as the type of
fuel.1.SINGLE FUEL SOURCE
1.1 Air Engine
The air
engine is an emission-free piston engine that uses compressed air as a
source of energy. The first compressed air car was invented by a French engineer
named Guy Negre. The expansion of compressed air may be used to drive the
pistons in a modified piston engine. Efficiency of operation is gained through
the use of environmental heat at normal temperature to warm the otherwise cold
expanded air from the storage tank. This non-adiabatic expansion has the
potential to greatly increase the efficiency of the machine. The only exhaust
is cold air (−15 °C), which could also be used to air condition the car. The
source for air is a pressurized carbon-fiber tank. Air is delivered to the
engine via a rather conventional injection system. Unique crank design within
the engine increases the time during which the air charge is warmed from
ambient sources and a two-stage process allows improved heat transfer rates.
1.2 Battery-Electric
Battery
electric vehicles (BEVs),
also known as all-electric vehicles (AEVs), are electric vehicles whose main
energy storage is in the chemical energy of batteries. BEVs are the most common
form of what is defined by the California Air Resources Board (CARB) as zero
emission vehicle (ZEV) because they produce no tailpipe emissions at the point
of operation. The electrical energy carried on board a BEV to power the motors
is obtained from a variety of battery chemistries arranged into battery packs.
For additional range genset trailers or pusher trailers are sometimes used,
forming a type of hybrid vehicle. Batteries used in electric vehicles include
"flooded" lead-acid, absorbed glass mat, NiCd, nickel metal hydride,
Li-ion, Li-poly and zinc-air batteries.
Attempts
at building viable, modern battery-powered electric vehicles began in the 1950s
with the introduction of the first modern (transistor controlled) electric car
- the Henney Kilowatt, even though the concept was out in the market since
1890. Despite the poor sales of the early battery-powered vehicles, development
of various battery-powered vehicles continued through the mids 1990s, with such
models as the General Motors EV1 and the Toyota RAV4 EV.
Battery
powered cars had primarily used lead-acid batteries and NiMH batteries.
Lead-acid batteries' recharge capacity is considerably reduced if they're
discharged beyond 75% on a regular basis, making them a less-than-ideal solution.
NiMH batteries are a better choice, but are considerably more expensive than
lead-acid. Lithium-ion battery powered vehicles such as the Venturi Fetish and
the Tesla Roadster have recently demonstrated excellent performance and range,
but they remain expensive, nevertheless is used in most mass production models
launched since December 2010.
As of
October 2014, several neighborhood electric vehicles, city electric cars and
series production highway-capable electric cars and utility vans have been made
available for retails sales, including Tesla Roadster, GEM cars, Buddy,
Mitsubishi i MiEV and its rebadged versions Peugeot iOn and Citroen C-Zero,
Chery QQ3 EV, JAC J3 EV, Nissan Leaf, Smart ED, Mia electric, BYD e6, Renault
Kangoo Z.E., Bolloré Bluecar, Renault Fluence Z.E., Ford Focus Electric, BMW
ActiveE, Renault Twizy, Tesla Model S, Honda Fit EV, RAV4 EV second generation,
Renault Zoe, Mitsubishi Minicab MiEV, Roewe E50, Chevrolet Spark EV, Fiat 500e,
BMW i3, Volkswagen e-Up!, Nissan e-NV200, Volkswagen e-Golf, Mercedes-Benz
B-Class Electric Drive, and Kia Soul EV. As of October 2014, the world's best-selling
highway-capable plug-in electric car is the Nissan Leaf all-electric car, with
about 140,000 units sold since December 2010.
1.2.1 Solar
A solar
car is an electric vehicle powered by solar energy obtained from solar
panels on the car. Solar panels cannot currently be used to directly supply a
car with a suitable amount of power at this time, but they can be used to
extend the range of electric vehicles. They are raced in competitions such as
the World Solar Challenge and the North American Solar Challenge. These events
are often sponsored by Government agencies such as the United States Department
of Energy keen to promote the development of alternative energy technology such
as solar cells and electric vehicles. Such challenges are often entered by
universities to develop their students engineering and technological skills as
well as motor vehicle manufacturers such as GM and Honda.
The
North American Solar Challenge is a solar car race across North America.
Originally called Sunrayce, organized and sponsored by General Motors in 1990,
it was renamed American Solar Challenge in 2001, sponsored by the United States
Department of Energy and the National Renewable Energy Laboratory. Teams from
universities in the United States and Canada compete in a long distance test of
endurance as well as efficiency, driving thousands of miles on regular
highways.
Nuna
is the name of a series of manned solar powered vehicles that won the World
solar challenge in Australia three times in a row, in 2001 (Nuna 1 or just
Nuna), 2003 (Nuna 2) and 2005 (Nuna 3). The Nunas are built by students of the
Delft University of Technology.
The
World solar challenge is a solar powered car race over 3,021 kilometers
(1,877 mi) through central Australia from Darwin to Adelaide. The race
attracts teams from around the world, most of which are fielded by universities
or corporations although some are fielded by high schools.
Trev (two-seater
renewable energy vehicle) was designed by the staff and students at the
University of South Australia. Trev was first displayed at the 2005 World Solar
Challenge as the concept of a low-mass, efficient commuter car. With 3 wheels
and a mass of about 300 kg, the prototype car had maximum speed of
120 km/h and acceleration of 0–100 km/h in about 10 seconds. The
running cost of Trev is projected to be less than 1/10 of the running cost of a
small petrol car.
1.3 Dimethyl ether fuel
Dimethyl
ether (DME) is a
promising fuel in diesel engines, [38] petrol engines (30% DME / 70% LPG), and gas turbines
owing to its high cetane number, which is 55, compared to diesel's, which is
40–53. Only moderate modifications are needed to convert a diesel engine to
burn DME. The simplicity of this short carbon chain compound leads during
combustion to very low emissions of particulate matter, NOx, CO. For these
reasons as well as being sulfur-free, DME meets even the most stringent
emission regulations in Europe (EURO5), U.S. (U.S. 2010), and Japan (2009
Japan).Mobil is using DME in their methanol to gasoline process.
DME is
being developed as a synthetic second generation biofuel (BioDME), which can be
manufactured from lignocellulosic biomass.
Currently the EU is considering BioDME in its
potential biofuel mix in 2030; the Volvo Group is the coordinator for the
European Community Seventh Framework Programme project BioDME where Chemrec's
BioDME pilot plant based on black liquor gasification is nearing completion in
Pitea, Sweden.
1.4 Ammonia fuelled vehicle
Ammonia
was used during World War II to power buses in Belgium, and in engine and solar
energy applications prior to 1900. Liquid ammonia also fuelled the Reaction Motors
XLR99 rocket engine, that powered the X-15 hypersonic research aircraft.
Although not as powerful as other fuels, it left no soot in the reusable rocket
engine and its density approximately matches the density of the oxidizer,
liquid oxygen, which simplified the aircraft's design.
Ammonia
has been proposed as a practical alternative to fossil fuel for internal
combustion engines. The calorific value of ammonia is 22.5 MJ/kg (9690 BTU/lb),
which is about half that of diesel. In a normal engine, in which the water
vapour is not condensed, the calorific value of ammonia will be about 21% less
than this figure. It can be used in existing engines with only minor
modifications to carburettors/injectors.
If
produced from coal, the Carbon dioxide can be readily sequestered (the combustion products
are nitrogen and water).
Ammonia
engines or ammonia motors, using ammonia as a working fluid, have been proposed
and occasionally used. The principle is similar to that used in a fireless
locomotive, but with ammonia as the working fluid, instead of steam or
compressed air. Ammonia engines were used experimentally in the 19th century by
Goldsworthy Gurney in the UK and in streetcars in New Orleans. In 1981 a
Canadian company converted a 1981 Chevrolet Impala to operate using ammonia as
fuel.
Ammonia
and GreenNH3 is being used with success by developers in Canada, since it can
run in spark ignited or diesel engines with minor modifications, also the only
green fuel to power jet engines, and despite its toxicity is reckoned to be no
more dangerous than petrol or LPG. It can be made from renewable electricity,
and having half the density of petrol or diesel can be readily carried in
sufficient quantities in vehicles. On combustion it has no emissions other than
nitrogen and water vapour.
1.5 Biofuels
1.5.1 Bioalcohol and ethanol
The
first commercial vehicle that used ethanol as a fuel was the Ford Model T,
produced from 1908 through 1927. It was fitted with a carburetor with
adjustable jetting, allowing use of gasoline or ethanol, or a combination of
both. Other car
manufactures also provided engines for ethanol fuel use. In the United States, alcohol fuel was produced in
corn-alcohol stills until Prohibition criminalized the production of alcohol in
1919. The use of alcohol as a fuel for internal combustion engines, either
alone or in combination with other fuels, lapsed until the oil price shocks of
the 1970s. Furthermore, additional attention was gained because of its possible
environmental and long-term economical advantages over fossil fuel.
Both
ethanol and methanol have been used as an automotive fuel. [58] While both can be
obtained from petroleum or natural gas, ethanol has attracted more attention
because it is considered a renewable resource, easily obtained from sugar or
starch in crops and other agricultural produce such as grain, sugarcane, sugar
beets or even lactose. Since ethanol occurs in nature whenever yeast happens to
find a sugar solution such as overripe fruit, most organisms have evolved some
tolerance to ethanol, whereas methanol is toxic. Other experiments involve
butanol, which can also be produced by fermentation of plants. Support for
ethanol comes from the fact that it is a biomass fuel, which addresses climate
change and greenhouse gas emissions, though these benefits are now highly
debated, including the heated 2008 food vs fuel debate.
Most
modern cars are designed to run on gasoline are capable of running with a blend
from 10% up to 15% ethanol mixed into gasoline (E10-E15). With a small amount
of redesign, gasoline-powered vehicles can run on ethanol concentrations as
high as 85% (E85), the maximum set in the United States and Europe due to cold
weather during the winter, or up to 100% (E100) in Brazil, with a warmer climate. Ethanol
has close to 34% less energy per volume than gasoline, consequently fuel
economy ratings with ethanol blends are significantly lower than with pure
gasoline, but this lower energy content does not translate directly into a 34%
reduction in mileage, because there are many other variables that affect the
performance of a particular fuel in a particular engine, and also because
ethanol has a higher octane rating which is beneficial to high compression
ratio engines.
For
this reason, for pure or high ethanol blends to be attractive for users, its
price must be lower than gasoline to offset the lower fuel economy. As a rule
of thumb, Brazilian consumers are frequently advised by the local media to use
more alcohol than gasoline in their mix only when ethanol prices are 30% lower
or more than gasoline, as ethanol price fluctuates heavily depending on the
results and seasonal harvests of sugar cane and by region. In the US, and based
on EPA tests for all 2006 E85 models, the average fuel economy for E85 vehicles
was found 25.56% lower than unleaded gasoline. The EPA-rated mileage of current
American flex-fuel vehicles could be considered when making price comparisons,
though E85 has octane rating of about 104 and could be used as a substitute for
premium gasoline. Regional retail E85 prices vary widely across the US, with
more favorable prices in the Midwest region, where most corn is grown and
ethanol produced. In August 2008 the US average spread between the price of E85
and gasoline was 16.9%, while in Indiana was 35%, 30% in Minnesota and
Wisconsin, 19% in Maryland, 12 to 15% in California, and just 3% in Utah.
Depending of the vehicle capabilities, the break-even price of E85 usually has
to be between 25 to 30% lower than gasoline.
Reacting
to the high price of oil and its growing dependence on imports, in 1975 Brazil
launched the Pro-alcool program, a huge government-subsidized effort to
manufacture ethanol fuel (from its sugar cane crop) and ethanol-powered
automobiles. These ethanol-only vehicles were very popular in the 1980s, but
became economically impractical when oil prices fell - and sugar prices rose -
late in that decade. In May 2003 Volkswagen built for the first time a
commercial ethanol flexible fuel car, the Gol 1.6 Total Flex. These vehicles
were a commercial success and by early 2009 other nine Brazilian manufacturers
are producing flexible fuel vehicles: Chevrolet, Fiat, Ford, Peugeot, Renault,
Honda, Mitsubishi, Toyota, Citroën, and Nissan. The adoption of the flex
technology was so rapid, that flexible fuel cars reached 87.6% of new car sales
in July 2008. As
of August 2008, the fleet of "flex" automobiles and light commercial
vehicles had reached 6 million new vehicles sold, representing almost 19% of
all registered light vehicles. The rapid
success of "flex" vehicles, as they are popularly known, was made
possible by the existence of 33,000 filling stations with at least one ethanol
pump available by 2006, a heritage of the Pro-alcool program.
In the
United States, initial support to develop alternative fuels by the government
was also a response to the 1973 oil crisis, and later on, as a goal to improve
air quality. Also, liquid fuels were preferred over gaseous fuels not only
because they have a better volumetric energy density but also because they were
the most compatible fuels with existing distribution systems and engines, thus
avoiding a big departure from the existing technologies and taking advantage of
the vehicle and the refueling infrastructure. California led the search of
sustainable alternatives with interest in methanol. In 1996, a new FFV Ford
Taurus was developed, with models fully capable of running either methanol or
ethanol blended with gasoline. This ethanol version of the Taurus was the first
commercial production of an E85 FFV. The momentum of the
FFV production programs at the American car companies continued, although by
the end of the 90's, the emphasis was on the FFV E85 version, as it is today.
Ethanol was preferred over methanol because there is
a large support in the farming community and thanks to government's incentive
programs and corn-based ethanol subsidies. Sweden also tested both the M85 and
the E85 flexifuel vehicles, but due to agriculture policy, in the end emphasis
was given to the ethanol flexifuel vehicles.
1.5.2 Biodiesel
The
main benefit of Diesel combustion engines is that they have a 44% fuel burn
efficiency; compared with just 25-30% in the best gasoline engines. In addition
diesel fuel has slightly higher Energy Density by volume than gasoline. This
makes Diesel engines capable of achieving much better fuel economy than
gasoline vehicles.
Biodiesel
(Fatty acid methyl ester), is commercially available in most oilseed-producing
states in the United States. As of 2005, it is somewhat more expensive than
fossil diesel, though it is still commonly produced in relatively small
quantities (in comparison to petroleum products and ethanol). Many farmers who
raise oilseeds use a biodiesel blend in tractors and equipment as a matter of
policy, to foster production of biodiesel and raise public awareness. It is
sometimes easier to find biodiesel in rural areas than in cities. Biodiesel has
lower Energy Density than fossil diesel fuel, so biodiesel vehicles are not
quite able to keep up with the fuel economy of a fossil fuelled diesel vehicle,
if the diesel injection system is not reset for the new fuel. If the injection
timing is changed to take account of the higher Cetane value of biodiesel, the
difference in economy is negligible. Because biodiesel contains more oxygen
than diesel or vegetable oil fuel, it produces the lowest emissions from diesel
engines, and is lower in most emissions than gasoline engines. Biodiesel has a
higher lubricity than mineral diesel and is an additive in European pump diesel
for lubricity and emissions reduction.
Some
Diesel-powered cars can run with minor modifications on 100% pure vegetable oils.
Vegetable oils tend to thicken (or solidify if it is waste cooking oil), in
cold weather conditions so vehicle modifications (a two tank system with diesel
start/stop tank), are essential in order to heat the fuel prior to use under
most circumstances. Heating to the temperature of engine coolant reduces fuel
viscosity, to the range cited by injection system manufacturers, for systems
prior to 'common rail' or 'unit injection ( VW PD)' systems. Waste vegetable
oil, especially if it has been used for a long time, may become hydrogenated
and have increased acidity. This can cause the thickening of fuel, gumming in
the engine and acid damage of the fuel system. Biodiesel does not have this
problem, because it is chemically processed to be PH neutral and lower
viscosity. Modern low emission diesels (most often Euro -3 and -4 compliant),
typical of the current production in the European industry, would require
extensive modification of injector system, pumps and seals etc. due to the
higher operating pressures, that are designed thinner (heated) mineral diesel
than ever before, for atomisation, if they were to use pure vegetable oil as
fuel. Vegetable oil fuel is not suitable for these vehicles as they are
currently produced. This reduces the market as increasing numbers of new
vehicles are not able to use it. However, the German Elsbett company has
successfully produced single tank vegetable oil fuel systems for several
decades, and has worked with Volkswagen on their TDI engines. This shows that
it is technologically possible to use vegetable oil as a fuel in high
efficiency / low emission diesel engines.
Greasestock is an event held yearly in Yorktown
Heights, New York, and is one of the largest showcases of vehicles using waste
oil as a biofuel in the United States
1.5.3
Biogas
Compressed Biogas may be used for Internal
Combustion Engines after purification of the raw gas. The removal of H2O, H2S
and particles can be seen as standard producing a gas which has the same
quality as Compressed Natural Gas. The use of biogas is particularly
interesting for climates where the waste heat of a biogas powered power plant
cannot be used during the summer.
1.6
Charcoal
In the 1930s, Tang Zhongming made an invention
using abundant charcoal resources for Chinese auto market. The Charcoal-fuelled
car was later used intensively in China, serving the army and conveyancer after
the breakout of World War II.
1.7
Compressed Natural Gas(CNG)
High-pressure
compressed natural gas, mainly composed of methane, that is used to fuel normal
combustion engines instead of gasoline. Combustion of methane produces the
least amount of CO2 of all fossil fuels. Gasoline cars can be retrofitted to
CNG and become bifuel Natural gas vehicles (NGVs) as the gasoline tank is kept.
The driver can switch between CNG and gasoline during operation. Natural gas
vehicles (NGVs) are popular in regions or countries where natural gas is
abundant. Widespread use began in the Po River Valley of Italy, and later
became very popular in New Zealand by the eighties, though its use has
declined.
As of
December 2012, there were 17.8 million natural gas vehicles worldwide, led by
Iran with 3.30 million, followed by Pakistan (2.79 million), Argentina (2.29
million), Brazil (1.75 million), China (1.58 million) and India (1.5 million).
As of 2010, the Asia-Pacific region led the global market with a share of 54%.
In Europe they are popular in Italy (730,000), Ukraine (200,000), Armenia
(101,352), Russia (100,000) and Germany (91,500), and they are becoming more so
as various manufacturers produce factory made cars, buses, vans and heavy
vehicles. In the United States CNG powered buses are the favorite choice of
several public transit agencies, with an estimated CNG bus fleet of some
130,000. Other
countries where CNG-powered buses are popular include India, Australia,
Argentina, and Germany.
CNG
vehicles are common in South America, where these vehicles are mainly used as
taxicabs in main cities of Argentina and Brazil. Normally, standard gasoline
vehicles are retrofitted in specialized shops, which involve installing the gas
cylinder in the trunk and the CNG injection system and electronics. The
Brazilian GNV fleet is concentrated in the cities of Rio de Janeiro and Sao
Paulo. Pike Research reports that almost 90% of NGVs
in Latin America have bi-fuel engines, allowing these vehicles to run on either
gasoline or CNG. [
In
2006 the Brazilian subsidiary of FIAT introduced the Fiat Siena Tetra fuel, a
four-fuel car developed under Magneti Marelli of Fiat Brazil. This automobile can run on
100% ethanol (E100), E25 (Brazil's normal ethanol gasoline blend), pure
gasoline (not available in Brazil), and natural gas, and switches from the gasoline-ethanol
blend to CNG automatically, depending on the power required by road conditions.
Other existing option is to retrofit an ethanol flexible-fuel vehicle to add a
natural gas tank and the corresponding injection system. Some taxicabs in SĂŁo
Paulo and Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, run on this option, allowing the user to
choose among three fuels (E25, E100 and CNG) according to current market prices
at the pump. Vehicles with this adaptation are known in Brazil as
"tri-fuel" cars.
HCNG
or Hydrogen enriched Compressed Natural Gas for mobile use is premixed at the
hydrogen station.
1.8 Hydrogen
A
hydrogen car is an automobile which uses hydrogen as its primary source of
power for locomotion. These cars generally use the hydrogen in one of two
methods: combustion or fuel-cell conversion. In combustion, the hydrogen is
"burned" in engines in fundamentally the same method as traditional
gasoline cars. In fuel-cell conversion, the hydrogen is turned into electricity
through fuel cells which then powers electric motors. With either method, the
only byproduct from the spent hydrogen is water, however during combustion with
air NOx can be produced.
Honda
introduced its fuel cell vehicle in 1999 called the FCX and have since then
introduced the second generation FCX Clarity. Limited marketing of the FCX
Clarity, based on the 2007 concept model, began in June 2008 in the United
States, and it was introduced in Japan in November 2008. The FCX Clarity is
available in the U.S. only in Los Angeles Area, where 16 hydrogen filling
stations are available, and until July 2009, only 10 drivers have leased the
Clarity for US$600 a month. At the 2012 World Hydrogen Energy Conference,
Daimler AG, Honda, Hyundai and Toyota all confirmed plans to produce hydrogen
fuel cell vehicles for sale by 2015, with some types planned to enter the
showroom in 2013.
A
small number of prototype hydrogen cars currently exist, and a significant
amount of research is underway to make the technology more viable. The common
internal combustion engine, usually fueled with gasoline (petrol) or diesel
liquids, can be converted to run on gaseous hydrogen. However, the most
efficient use of hydrogen involves the use of fuel cells and electric motors
instead of a traditional engine. Hydrogen reacts with oxygen inside the fuel
cells, which produces electricity to power the motors. One primary area of
research is hydrogen storage, to try to increase the range of hydrogen vehicles
while reducing the weight, energy consumption, and complexity of the storage systems.
Two primary methods of storage are metal hydrides and compression. Some believe
that hydrogen cars will never be economically viable and that the emphasis on
this technology is a diversion from the development and popularization of more
efficient hybrid cars and other alternative technologies. A study by The Carbon
Trust for the UK Department of Energy and Climate Change suggests that hydrogen
technologies have the potential to deliver UK transport with near-zero
emissions whilst reducing dependence on imported oil and curtailment of
renewable generation. However, the technologies face very difficult challenges,
in terms of cost, performance and policy.
Buses,
trains, PHB bicycles, canal boats, cargo bikes, golf carts, motorcycles,
wheelchairs, ships, airplanes, submarines, and rockets can already run on
hydrogen, in various forms. NASA used hydrogen to launch Space Shuttles into
space. A working toy model car runs on solar power, using a regenerative fuel
cell to store energy in the form of hydrogen and oxygen gas. It can then
convert the fuel back into water to release the solar energy.
BMW's
Clean Energy internal combustion hydrogen car has more power and is faster than
hydrogen fuel cell electric cars. A limited series production of the 7 Series
Saloon was announced as commencing at the end of 2006. A BMW hydrogen prototype
(H2R) using the driveline of this model broke the speed record for hydrogen
cars at 300 km/h (186 mi/h), making automotive history. Mazda has
developed Wankel engines to burn hydrogen. The Wankel uses a rotary principle
of operation, so the hydrogen burns in a different part of the engine from the
intake. This reduces pre-detonation, a problem with hydrogen fueled piston
engines.
The
other major car companies like Daimler, Chrysler, Honda, Toyota, Ford and
General Motors, are investing in hydrogen fuel cells instead. VW, Nissan, and
Hyundai/Kia also have fuel cell vehicle prototypes on the road. In addition,
transit agencies across the globe are running prototype fuel cell buses. Fuel
cell vehicles, such as the new Honda Clarity, can get up to 70 miles
(110 km) on a kilogram of hydrogen.
1.9 Liquid Nitrogen Cars
Liquid
nitrogen (LN2) is a method of storing energy. Energy is used to liquefy air,
and then LN2 is produced by evaporation, and distributed. LN2 is exposed to
ambient heat in the car and the resulting nitrogen gas can be used to power a
piston or turbine engine. The maximum amount of energy that can be extracted
from 1 kg of LN2 is 213 W-hr or 173 W-hr per liter, in which a maximum of
70 W-hr can be utilized with an isothermal expansion process. Such a vehicle
with a 350 liter (93 gallon) tank can achieve ranges similar to a gasoline
powered vehicle with a 50 liter (13 gallon) tank. Theoretical future engines,
using cascading topping cycles, can improve this to around 110 W-hr/kg with a
quasi-isothermal expansion process. The advantages are zero harmful emissions
and superior energy densities compared to a Compressed-air vehicle, and a car
powered by LN2 can be refilled in a matter of minutes.
1.10 Liquified Natural Gas(LNG)
Liquefied
natural gas is natural gas that has been cooled to a point at which it becomes
a cryogenic liquid. In this liquid state, natural gas is more than 2 times as
dense as highly compressed CNG. LNG fuel systems function on any vehicle
capable of burning natural gas. Unlike CNG, which is stored at high pressure
(typically 3000 or 3600 psi) and then regulated to a lower pressure that the
engine can accept, LNG is stored at low pressure (50 to 150 psi) and simply
vaporized by a heat exchanger before entering the fuel metering devices to the
engine. Because of its high energy density compared to CNG, it is very suitable
for those interested in long ranges while running on natural gas.
In the
United States, the LNG supply chain is the main thing that has held back this
fuel source from growing rapidly. The LNG supply chain is very analogous to
that of diesel or gasoline. First, pipeline natural gas is liquefied in large
quantities, which is analogous to refining gasoline or diesel. Then, the LNG is
transported via semi trailer to fuel stations where it is stored in bulk tanks
until it is dispensed into a vehicle. CNG, on the other hand, requires
expensive compression at each station to fill the high-pressure cylinder
cascades.
1.11 Autogas(LPG)
LPG or
liquefied petroleum gas is a low pressure liquefied gas mixture composed mainly
of propane and butane which burns in conventional gasoline combustion engines
with less CO 2
than gasoline. Gasoline cars can be retrofitted to LPG aka Autogas and become
bifuel vehicles as the gasoline tank stays. You can switch between LPG and
gasoline during operation. Estimated 10 million vehicles running worldwide.
There
are 17.473 million LPG powered vehicles worldwide as of December 2010, and the
leading countries are Turkey (2.394 million vehicles), Poland (2.325 million),
and South Korea (2.3 million). In the U.S., 190,000 on-road vehicles use
propane, and 450,000 forklifts use it for power. Whereas it is banned in
Pakistan (DEC 2013) as it is considered a risk to public safety by OGRA.
Hyundai
Motor Company began sales of the Elantra LPI Hybrid in the South Korean
domestic market in July 2009. The Elantra LPI (Liquefied Petroleum Injected) is
the world's first hybrid electric vehicle to be powered by an internal
combustion engine built to run on liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) as a fuel.
1.12 Steam
A
steam car is a car that has a steam engine. Wood, coal, ethanol, or others can
be used as fuel. The fuel is burned in a boiler and the heat converts water
into steam. When the water turns to steam, it expands. The expansion creates
pressure. The pressure pushes the pistons back and forth. This turns the
driveshaft to spin the wheels forward. It works like a coal-fueled steam train,
or steam boat. The steam car was the next logical step in independent
transport.
Steam
cars take a long time to start, but some can reach speeds over 100 mph
(161 km/h) eventually. the late model doble could be brought to operational
condition in less than 30 seconds, and were fast, with high acceleration, but
they were ridiculously expensive.
A
steam engine uses external combustion, as opposed to internal combustion.
Gasoline-powered cars are more efficient at about 25-28% efficiency. In theory,
a combined cycle steam engine in which the burning material is first used to
drive a gas turbine can produce 50% to 60% efficiency. However, practical
examples of steam engined cars work at only around 5-8% efficiency.
The
best known and best selling steam-powered car was the Stanley Steamer. It used
a compact fire-tube boiler under the hood to power a simple two-piston engine
which was connected directly to the rear axle. Before Henry Ford introduced
monthly payment financing with great success, cars were typically purchased
outright. This is why the Stanley was kept simple; to keep the purchase price
affordable.
Steam
produced in refrigeration also can be use by a turbine in other vehicle types
to produce electricity, that can be employed in electric motors or stored in a
battery.
Steam
power can be combined with a standard oil-based engine to create a hybrid.
Water is injected into the cylinder after the fuel is burned, when the piston
is still superheated, often at temperatures of 1500 degrees or more. The water
will instantly be vaporized into steam, taking advantage of the heat that would
otherwise be wasted.
1.13 Wood Gas
Wood
gas can be used to power cars with ordinary internal combustion engines if a
wood gasifier is attached. This was quite popular during World War II in
several European and Asian countries because the war prevented easy and
cost-effective access to oil.
Herb
Hartman of Woodward, Iowa currently drives a wood powered Cadillac. He claims
to have attached the gasifier to the Cadillac for just $700. Hartman claims, “A
full hopper will go about fifty miles depending on how you drive it,” and he
added that splitting the wood was “labor-intensive. That’s the big drawback.”
2. MULTIPLE
FUEL SOURCE
2.1 Flexible Fuel
A
flexible-fuel vehicle (FFV) or dual-fuel vehicle is an alternative fuel
automobile or light duty truck with a multifuel engine that can use more than
one fuel, usually mixed in the same tank, and the blend is burned in the
combustion chamber together. These vehicles are colloquially called flex-fuel,
or flexifuel in Europe, or just flex in Brazil. FFVs are distinguished from
bi-fuel vehicles, where two fuels are stored in separate tanks. The most common
commercially available FFV in the world market is the ethanol flexible-fuel
vehicle, with the major markets concentrated in the United States, Brazil,
Sweden, and some other European countries. In addition to flex-fuel vehicles
running with ethanol, in the US and Europe there were successful test programs
with methanol flex-fuel vehicles, known as M85 FFVs, and more recently there
have been also successful tests using p-series fuels with E85 flex fuel
vehicles, but as of June 2008, this fuel is not yet available to the general
public.
Ethanol
flexible-fuel vehicles have standard gasoline engines that are capable of
running with ethanol and gasoline mixed in the same tank. These mixtures have
"E" numbers which describe the percentage of ethanol in the mixture,
for example, E85 is 85% ethanol and 15% gasoline. (See common ethanol fuel
mixtures for more information.) Though technology exists to allow ethanol FFVs
to run on any mixture up to E100, in the U.S. and Europe, flex-fuel vehicles are optimized to
run on E85. This limit is set to avoid cold starting problems during very cold
weather. The alcohol content might be reduced during the winter, to E70 in the
U.S. or to E75 in Sweden. Brazil, with a warmer climate, developed vehicles
that can run on any mix up to E100, though E20-E25 is the mandatory minimum
blend, and no pure gasoline is sold in the country.
By
October 2013 cumulative global sales of flexible-fuel vehicles have reached
around 34 million units, led by Brazil with 20 million automobiles and light
trucks, and 3 million flexible-fuel motorcycles, followed by the United States
with about 10 million units, Canada (600,000), and Europe, led by Sweden (229,400). In
Brazil, 65% of flex-fuel car owners were using ethanol fuel regularly in 2009,
while, the actual number of American FFVs being run on E85 is much lower;
surveys conducted in the U.S. have found that 68% of American flex-fuel car
owners were not aware they owned an E85 flex. This is thought to be due to a
number of factors, including:
· The appearance of flex-fuel and non-flex-fuel
vehicles is identical.
· There is no price difference between a
pure-gasoline vehicle and its flex-fuel variant.
· The lack of consumer awareness of
flex-fuel vehicles.
· The lack of promotion of flex-fuel
vehicles by American automakers, who often do not label the cars or market them
in the same way they do to hybrid cars.
By
contrast, automakers selling FFVs in Brazil commonly affix badges advertising
the car as a flex-fuel vehicle. As of 2007, new FFV models sold in the U.S.
were required to feature a yellow gas cap emblazoned with the label
"E85/gasoline", in order to remind drivers of the cars' flex-fuel
capabilities. Use of E85 in the U.S. is also affected by the relatively low
number of E85 filling stations in operation across the country, with just over
1,750 in August 2008, most of which are concentrated in the Corn Belt states,
led by Minnesota with 353 stations, followed by Illinois with 181, and
Wisconsin with 114. By comparison, there are some 120,000 stations providing
regular non-ethanol gasoline in the United States alone.
There
have been claims that American automakers are motivated to produce flex-fuel
vehicles due to a loophole in the Corporate Average Fuel Economy (CAFE)
requirements, which gives the automaker a "fuel economy credit" for every
flex-fuel vehicle sold, whether or not the vehicle is actually fueled with E85
in regular use. This
loophole allegedly allows the U.S. auto industry to meet CAFE fuel economy
targets not by developing more fuel-efficient models, but by spending between
$100 and $200 extra per vehicle to produce a certain number of flex-fuel
models, enabling them to continue selling less fuel-efficient vehicles such as
SUVs, which netted higher profit margins than smaller, more fuel-efficient
cars.
In the
United States, E85 FFVs are equipped with sensor that automatically detect the
fuel mixture, signaling the ECU to tune spark timing and fuel injection so that
fuel will burn cleanly in the vehicle's internal combustion engine. Originally,
the sensors were mounted in the fuel line and exhaust system; more recent
models do away with the fuel line sensor. Another feature of older flex-fuel
cars is a small separate gasoline storage tank that was used for starting the
car on cold days, when the ethanol mixture made ignition more difficult.
Modern
Brazilian flex-fuel technology enables FFVs to run an any blend between E20-E25
gasohol and E100 ethanol fuel, using a lambda probe to measure the quality of
combustion, which informs the engine control unit as to the exact composition
of the gasoline-alcohol mixture. This technology, developed by the Brazilian
subsidiary of Bosch in 1994, and further improved and commercially implemented
in 2003 by the Italian subsidiary of Magneti Marelli, is known as
"Software Fuel Sensor". The Brazilian subsidiary of Delphi Automotive
Systems developed a similar technology, known as "Multifuel", based
on research conducted at its facility in Piracicaba, Sao Paulo. This technology
allows the controller to regulate the amount of fuel injected and spark time,
as fuel flow needs to be decreased to avoid detonation due to the high
compression ratio (around 12:1) used by flex-fuel engines.
The
first flex motorcycle was launched by Honda in March 2009. Produced by its
Brazilian subsidiary Moto Honda da AmazĂ´nia, the CG 150 Titan Mix is sold for
around US$2,700. Because the motorcycle does not have a secondary gas tank for
a cold start like the Brazilian flex cars do, the tank must have at least 20%
of gasoline to avoid start up problems at temperatures below 15 °C
(59 °F). The motorcycle’s panel includes a gauge to warn the driver about
the actual ethanol-gasoline mix in the storage tank.
2.2 Hybrid
A
hybrid vehicle uses multiple propulsion systems to provide motive power. The
most common type of hybrid vehicle is the gasoline-electric hybrid vehicles,
which use gasoline (petrol) and electric batteries for the energy used to power
internal-combustion engines (ICEs) and electric motors. These motors are
usually relatively small and would be considered "underpowered" by
themselves, but they can provide a normal driving experience when used in
combination during acceleration and other maneuvers that require greater power.
The
Toyota Prius first went on sale in Japan in 1997 and it is sold worldwide since
2000. By 2010 the Prius is sold in more than 70 countries and regions, with
Japan and the United States as its largest markets. In May 2008, global
cumulative Prius sales reached the 1 million units, and by September 2010, the
Prius reached worldwide cumulative sales of 2 million units, and 3 million
units by June 2013.
The
Honda Insight is a two-seater hatchback hybrid automobile manufactured by
Honda. It was the first mass-produced hybrid automobile sold in the United
States, introduced in 1999, and produced until 2006. Honda introduced the
second-generation Insight in Japan in February 2009, and the new Insight went
on sale in the U.S. on April 22, 2009. Honda also offers the Honda Civic Hybrid
since 2002.
As of
December 2013, there are over 50 models of hybrid electric cars available in
several world markets, and 7.5 million hybrid electric vehicles have been
sold worldwide, led by Toyota Motor Company (TMC) with more than 6 million
Lexus and Toyota hybrids, followed by Honda Motor Co., Ltd. with cumulative global
sales of more than 1.2 million hybrids, and Ford Motor Corporation with
more than 292 thousand hybrids sold in the United States by September
2013. The world's best selling hybrid is the Toyota Prius, with 3 million units
sold by June 2013. Global sales are led by the United States with over
3 million units sold by October 2013, followed by Japan with over
2.6 million hybrids by September 2013, and Europe with more than 650,000
units by August 2013.
Until
2010 most plug-in hybrids on the road in the US were conversions of
conventional hybrid electric vehicles, and the most prominent PHEVs were
conversions of 2004 or later Toyota Prius, which have had plug-in charging and
more batteries added and their electric-only range extended. Chinese battery manufacturer
and automaker BYD Auto released the F3DM to the Chinese fleet market in
December 2008 and
began sales to the general public in Shenzhen in March 2010. General Motors
began deliveries of the Chevrolet Volt in the U.S. in December 2010. Deliveries
to retail customers of the Fisker Karma began in the U.S. in November 2011.
During 2012, the Toyota Prius Plug-in Hybrid, Ford C-Max Energi, and Volvo V60
Plug-in Hybrid were released. The following models were launched during 2013
and 2014: Honda Accord Plug-in Hybrid, Mitsubishi Outlander P-HEV, Ford Fusion
Energi, McLaren P1 (limited edition), Porsche Panamera S E-Hybrid, BYD Qin,
Cadillac ELR, BMW i8, Porsche 918 Spyder (limited production), Volkswagen XL1
(limited production), Audi A3 Sportback e-tron and Volkswagen Golf GTE. As of
June 2014, the Volt/Ampera family of plug-in hybrids, with combined sales of
over 77,000 units, is the top selling plug-in hybrid in the world, and the
second best selling plug-in electric car after the Nissan Leaf.
The
Elantra LPI Hybrid, launched in the South Korean domestic market in July 2009,
is a hybrid vehicle powered by an internal combustion engine built to run on
liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) as a fuel. The Elantra PLI is a mild hybrid and
the first hybrid to adopt advanced lithium polymer (Li–Poly) batteries
2.2.1 Pedal assisted electric hybrid
vehicle
In
very small vehicles, the power demand decreases, so human power can be employed
to make a significant improvement in battery life. Two such commercially made
vehicles are the Sinclair C5 and TWIKE.
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